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Part I
Introducing Hinduism
In this part . . .
How did it all begin? In this part, I introduce you to Hinduism. A little bit of history gets you started as you learn the origin of the word Hindu, what Hindus believe in, what their value system is, and the variety of Hindu denominations. It is true that Hindus worship many gods, goddesses, and even animals, and in this part you find out why. You also learn about the caste system and whether it is still in vogue today. I also introduce you to the key concepts of dharma and karma.
Chapter 1
A Quick Overview of Hinduism
In This Chapter
Seeing the broad view of life in Hinduism
Reviewing the core beliefs
Learning about Hindu gods, goddesses, saints, and sacred texts
Appreciating modes of worship and societal structure
Hinduism, the oldest and perhaps the most complex religion in the world, has its origin in India. It has survived as a faith for thousands of years despite many outside influences, including invasions and occupations of the land. Hinduism has always been interested in — and welcomed — ideas from anywhere. One of its earliest sacred scriptures, known as the Rig Veda, declares Let noble thoughts come to us from all directions.
While absorbing into its bosom almost all good ideas from outside, Hinduism has been successful at keeping its own good ideas intact. Its focus has always been (and continues to be) inward; it has little interest in convincing others to embrace its values. Therefore, Hindu religious leaders rarely try to convert others. Hinduism firmly believes in both a supreme being and the idea that other belief systems are as valid as its own. This flexibility may be one factor that has led to the religion's survival over the millennia.
This chapter provides a very general overview of Hinduism, introducing you to the basic beliefs, ways to worship, and more.
The Hindu Worldview
Unlike Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism, Hinduism has no founder. It has no single religious book, such as the Bible or Koran, as its basis. Nor is it an organized religion. Hinduism has no founding date. It has no hierarchy of priests and no organizational structure that relies on a powerful leader (such as a pope) at its head. There are no standard sacraments or rites of initiation accepted and practiced by all those who profess to be Hindus. With no such anchors, or even an expectation that the followers believe the same things, you won't be surprised to know that scholars have had a field day trying to assess Hinduism in a Western framework. Not only has that task been nearly impossible, but also it has led to hundreds of interpretations — some of which portray Hinduism as flexible, broad, and secular, and others that treat the religion with ridicule or doubt.
When it comes to ultimate values, Hindu thought has never recognized or accepted any boundaries, be they geographical, racial, or otherwise. According to the Hindu worldview, Truth is unquestionably valid universally. In fact, this belief leads to the universal outlook typical of Hindus.
Hinduism, the oldest of all religions, has a unique perspective on life. It excludes nothing! Hinduism has as its adherents a broad spectrum of people who span from the extremely orthodox immersed in elaborate ritual worship of the Almighty to those who openly declare that they do not believe in any god. In fact, Hinduism's view of the world is epitomized by this declaration from one of its sacred scriptures, the Mahopanishad (Chapter VI, Verse 72): Vasudhaiva kutumbakam,
which means The whole world is a family.
This fundamental belief helps Hindus feel connected with the world. The belief that there is but One Supreme Soul from which everything — all living entities and inanimate objects — emerged further strengthens the connection with the entire universe.
Devout Hindus worship many gods and goddesses. They worship cows, monkeys, snakes, trees, plants, and even tools. They worship mountains, rivers, and oceans. In the life of a Hindu, every day of the week involves worship of a minor or major god or goddess or the celebration of a festival. Religion is in the air for Hindus no matter where they are. The ideas and practices are at once complex and simple. But fear not. In this book, I help unravel some mysteries and still leave you with a sense of awe!
A broad set of key beliefs
Survey after survey reveals that more than 95 percent of Hindus believe in the existence of God. A broad set of beliefs stem from that most basic of beliefs, and they include the following (which I discuss further in Chapter 3):
Belief in the Supreme Soul: This being is identified as Brahman, universal spirit. Brahman is the One who reveals himself in the minds of the sages and seers as the Supreme Consciousness. Hindus understand Brahman to be the only thing real in the universe. All else is therefore unreal, false or illusory, and untrue. Brahman sounds like an abstract entity but is entirely real in every sense — the one and only Reality. You can find out about Brahman and the other divine entities in Part II.
Belief that Truth is the goal of life: The goal of life, according to Hindus, is to reach back to Brahman, the one Reality, by realizing our true nature. That goal is defined as moksha: liberation from repeated cycles of births and deaths. The goal is to realize unity, or oneness, with Brahman. For that reason, the Hindu prays, Asato ma sat gamaya,
which means Lead me from the unreal to the real.
Belief in the authority of the Vedas: The Vedas are Hindu sacred books of knowledge, written in Sanskrit, the ancient and liturgical language of India. There are four Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda, and Sama Veda. Hindus believe that all four were revealed to Hindu sages. The Vedas contain hymns of praise to various gods, procedures for sacrificial rites and rituals, recommendations of cures for all ills, and musical chants appropriate at rituals. The Vedas are considered so sacred that the very definition of a Hindu is often stated as one who accepts/believes in the authority of the Vedas. Part III is devoted to the Vedas and the other important Hindu sacred texts.
Belief in the idea that time is circular and not linear: According to this concept of time, there are no beginnings and no endings; time is simply a continuum. Hindus define periods of time as cyclical in nature, with each cycle containing four subperiods known as yugas: Krita, Treta, Dwapara, and Kali. Added together, the four yugas total about 4.32 million years. At the end of each cycle, gradually declining time spans and human values lead to dissolution. Then another period starts, and the cycle repeats all over again. This view of time has helped in developing the ancient Hindu perspective on life — a perspective that allows for a tolerant view of events and people.
Belief in karma and karmic consequences: Karma is action that relates to service, specifically service to society. Hindus believe that what we are today is the result of our actions in the past. It stands to reason that what we will be in the future depends on what we do now, this moment, and onward for the rest of this life.
Belief in the concept of dharma: The root word for dharma is dhr, which means to hold
or to sustain,
specifically within the context of maintaining harmony and balance in nature. Dharma or right conduct is so central to Hindu life that it encompasses everyone, irrespective of age, station in life, or caste. Each being has its own dharma consistent with its nature. A tiger's dharma, for example, is to kill and eat its prey. Yielding milk to sustain the life of the young is a cow's dharma. The dharma of humans is to serve.
The word dharma appears quite frequently in this book, much like the word Veda. That's because, in some ways, understanding the concepts inherent in these two words is vital to understanding the Hindu faith.
Belief in tolerance as the core value: Ancient universities and religious centers in India attracted students and visitors from many parts of the settled world. They invited debate and inquiry into religious ideas. With this same spirit, modern Hindus accept all religions to be true and self-contained. A Hindu hymn asserts this view by comparing the various paths to God with hundreds of rivers and streams all mingling finally with the ocean.
These fundamental beliefs have paved the way for Hindus to develop a philosophical outlook on life. This outlook is based firmly on the belief in an intimate connection between the individual soul, called atman (or Jivatman), and the Supreme Soul, called Paramatman. Broadly speaking, these fundamentals comprise a code of behavior that continues to form the contemporary Hindu view of life.
A brief look at Hindu gods and goddesses
Early Hindu thought had a clear focus on the One Supreme Being. The Chandogya Upanishad — one of the sacred texts of Hindus — contains an eloquent phrase: ekam eva adwiteeyam.
It means, There is but One without a second.
Yet Hinduism ended up embracing a large number of gods and goddesses. This one-size-doesn't-fit-all realization provided an extraordinary variety of choice for individuals to worship. The One without a second doctrine, however, which holds that God and the universe are one and the same, remains fundamental and is still preserved. The simple prayer offered by Hindus at the conclusion of any worship, irrespective of the god or goddess being worshipped, sums it all up:
You alone are our mother and father
You alone are our sibling and friend
You alone are our knowledge and prosperity
You alone are everything to us
My Lord, my Lord
Hindu mythology identifies three gods at the head of a hierarchy of gods. These three are
Brahma, whose main function is to create
Vishnu, who sustains the created universe
Shiva, who is in charge of dissolution prior to the next time cycle of creation in an endless cycle
In simplistic terms, these three are sometimes referred to as Creator, Sustainer, and Destroyer respectively. Each of these major gods has a female consort also playing a major role:
Saraswati, consort of Brahma, is the goddess of learning.
Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, is the goddess of wealth and well-being.
Devi, Shiva's consort, represents the creative power known as Shakti.
Below these primary gods are a variety of forms of gods including the avatars of Vishnu (which I explain in Chapter 8). Many temples exist and continue to be built for Shiva, his sons (Ganapati and Murugan), the previous goddesses named, and the various forms of Vishnu. The concept and presence of Brahma is enshrined in the heart of every sanctified Hindu temple (see Chapter 15).
During the early Vedic period, nature gods such as sun, wind, fire, and dawn were objects of Hindu worship. (When was the early Vedic period? Different scholars offer widely differing dates, but probably between 1500 and 1000 BCE.) These Vedic gods are invoked and worshipped in household rituals, weddings, and temple rituals to this day. Except for the sun god, no temples exist for other Vedic gods. However, hymns of praise for these gods fill the revealed sacred scriptures.
The Vedic gods fall into several general categories:
Nature gods, especially gods connected with weather and climate
Planetary gods who feature in destiny and the composition of horoscopes
Gods who rule over household health and wealth and community values
In addition, other gods and goddesses, who are regional and local, preside over small villages and towns; their patronage is sought during natural disasters such as floods, epidemics, and the like.
You can read much more on the subject of gods and goddesses in Chapter 7.
Hindu religious leaders
Hinduism is a more than 5,000-year-old culture, philosophy, and faith, so you can imagine how many religious leaders have contributed to it! The number is very large — perhaps thousands — and covers a broad spectrum of people. Chapter 9 provides details on Hindu religious leaders. For now, I briefly describe what the various Hindu religious titles mean:
Sages: In Hindu parlance, a sage (or rishi in Sanskrit) is an extraordinary spiritual person who is totally devoted to seeking Reality and practicing austerities in remote environments such as caves and deep forests. Sages first heard
the revelations that formed the basis of Hinduism (see Chapter 2).
A long list of such sages exists, and all Hindus who belong to the first three castes (see the upcoming section Societal Structure
) trace their origins to one of these sages of the ancient past. While performing rituals, Hindus cite their lineage (called gotra) by referring to a set of sages (generally three, but sometimes five or seven) from whom they claim spiritual descent. You occasionally read about the Seven Sages called Saptarshis who are represented in the seven stars in the constellation Ursa Major.
Some names of ancient sages often cited in the scriptures are Vasishta, Vishwamitra, Atri, Jamadagni, Bharadwaja, Narada, Agastya, Markandeya, Garga, Kanva, Bhrigu, and Kaushika.
Gurus: The word guru means teacher. Hinduism accords a special place for teachers in general but in particular for religious teachers. Each family has a revered teacher, and more often than not that teacher is also the founder of a particular Hindu sect and referred to as an acharya. For example, in the Srivaishnava denomination (more on denominations in Chapter 4), the most revered teacher is Ramanujacharya. Families belonging to this denomination would cite this guru in reverence at the conclusion of rituals and offer their allegiance to him.
A very well-known prayer is addressed to such gurus during daily prayers:
I salute that guru who is Brahma, Vishnu and
Shiva and who is verily the Brahman.
Swamis: Swamis are religious leaders who belong to an order, such as the Ramakrishna Order. When such a leader is ordained, his name is prefixed with the title Swami and ends with ananda (meaning bliss
). The ordained name replaces the given and family names. Swami Vivekananda and Swami Satchidananda are examples. Swamis set up missions and accept, train, and ordain disciples in order to continue their particular tradition. I say more about swamis in Chapter 2.
Monks and preachers: To this general category may belong any and all persons who have a religious interest, talent, and perhaps some following. Monks and preachers may travel around, offer advice, preach, tell stories from the great epics, sing, chant, bless, and be a part of a community in general. Monks may also belong to an ashram as a celibate community, or they may live alone.
Priests: Priests (also known as purohits) conduct worships regularly at temples and when devotees visit. They also go to private homes, upon request, to help families perform rituals and ceremonies. Hindu priests may marry.
Reformers: Hinduism has had important reformers who have introduced various approaches to salvation over the past several thousand years. The most famous reformers are Shankaracharya (who introduced a philosophy of Nondualism known as Advaita), Ramanujacharya (who introduced the philosophy of qualified Nondualism known as Vishishtadvaita), and Madhvacharya (who introduced Dualism, known as Dvaita). I introduce you to all three — and their philosophies — in Chapter 20.
Why dates and other details in Hindu history may not be specific
The history of the Hindu religion can get a bit hazy simply because it's so very old. Here are some factors that make it difficult to pin down exact dates and other details about the religion's history:
The oral tradition: The Hindu religion began with revelations heard
by several sages over several centuries and then preserved through oral tradition — that is, a system of memorization. Much later, again at unknown dates, these revelations were compiled and put in writing. Does it surprise you that controversy exists about who did what and when?
Uncertain dates: Scholars cannot agree about the period in which certain significant events in Hindu history took place — especially when the focus is events occurring more than several thousand years ago. For example, there is still no agreement on the period in which the most sacred scriptures of Hindus, the Vedas, were compiled.
Here's another example: Hindus believe that the end of the era known as Dwapara Yuga occurred when the Kurukshetra battle (which almost wiped out a whole royal race that ruled ancient India) ended. Some scholars claim that the sole surviving prince (known as Parikshit) ascended the throne at Hastinavati (present-day Delhi) around 3500 BCE. Other scholars place the date of the battle as anywhere between 500 BCE and 200 AD. The discrepancy here isn't a squabble about 100 or 200 years; we're talking about disagreements in the order of thousands of years.
Lack of hard evidence: Some scholars have made extraordinary efforts to carefully note events recorded in Hindu epic histories and correlate them with the corresponding astronomical events mentioned, such as the position and phase of the moon, alignment of planets, and the like. But some of these astronomical events recur each century or two, so the scholars' conclusions may still be in some doubt.
Identical names and alternate names: I'm not talking about identity theft here, but sometimes the name of a sage is taken by another sage centuries later. When that happens, it raises the question of which sage is being referred to. In addition, some sages are referred to by alternate names. For example, a well-recognized sage known as Veda Vyasa (whom I call the Homer of India
) is claimed, by some scholars, to be the same as sage Badarayana. Other scholars deny that identity entirely.
Keep these factors in mind as you read about the extraordinary saints, sages, scholars, and leaders whose contributions have molded the lives of billions of Hindus over the millennia.
Hinduism's sacred texts
Hinduism is not a faith that is based on one book. Very many sacred texts serve as the basis for the philosophy, rituals, and practices of Hinduism. These texts are mainly written in Sanskrit, but several major contributions are also to be found in other vernacular languages. The following sections provide a brief overview of these texts, and I provide much more detailed information in Part III.
Revealed texts: The Vedas
A basic Hindu belief is that the Vedas were inspired by what is known as shruti, meaning they were directly revealed by God and heard by sages performing intense penance. Accumulated over millennia, the Vedas form the basis of Hindu faith. The Sanskrit word Veda has its root in vid (to know), so the Vedas are the sacred knowledge of the ancient Hindus. They are recognized as apaurusheya, meaning that their origin is not traced to any individual and is, therefore, divine.
There are four Vedas, or Vedic traditions: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. Each Veda is divided into three or four major sections, referred to as Samhitas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. The word Upanishads literally means something below the surface
; the Upanishads comprise the intellectual content of the Vedas and serve as the very foundation of Hindu philosophy.
Remembered texts: The Shastras, the epics, and the puranas
An equally voluminous literature known as smrti, which means remembered
(as opposed to revealed), emerged, undoubtedly inspired by the rich shruti literature. The dates of these scriptures are equally uncertain. The remembered texts include Dharma Shastras (rules of right conduct), the two major Hindu epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), and puranas (stories of gods); they consist of thousands of exciting tales to drive home the basic principles and values of Hindu thought. Their influence on the psyche of Hindus remains intact to this day.
The Hindu value system is embedded in the epics, puranas, and many other stories. In these texts, you find emperors, empresses, kings, queens, gods, goddesses, demons, festivities, holy rivers and mountains, prayers, devotional songs, weddings, births and deaths, successes and failures, the heights to which humans can rise, and the depths to which they could sink — all summed up in one word: life!
The Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord
), or simply the Gita, is considered very sacred by all Hindus and many Western scholars and devotees of Hinduism. The Gita is, in some sense, a Hindu manual for a spiritual life. Its story occurs just before the great Mahabharata War is about to commence, when the hero Arjuna decides to quit the battlefield. He suddenly realizes that a battle that pits brothers against brothers, students against teachers, and the young against the old makes no sense. He throws down his powerful bow and becomes silent and dejected. In a timeless moment, the Lord teaches Arjuna the meaning of duty and charges him that he has no choice but to fulfill his duty as a warrior to restore dharma.
The 18 chapters of the Gita have inspired millions of Hindus over the centuries. Not a day goes by in India when some aspect of the Gita is not evoked among the Hindu populace in the form of recitation, discussions, or enactment. This scripture is the subject of Chapter 13.
Key components of Hindu worship
Hindus worship in myriad ways, from simply closing their eyes and offering a short prayer to conducting elaborate ceremonies at home or in temples that last the whole day. I touch upon components of worship briefly here, and you can find the details in Chapters 14 and 15.
Devotions
For most Hindus, prayer is a daily event. Home altars are common in devout Hindu households. The orthodox may pray at least three times a day, first in the morning after ablutions (ritual washings), at midday before a meal, and in the late evening around sunset before supper. These prayers are known as sandhya vandanam and are a prescribed daily routine for young men who have been initiated into brahmacharya (meaning they are students of the Vedas) and their elders. I cite a few prayers here and offer more details about devotions in Chapters 14, 15, and 23.
Upon waking up, this prayer is addressed to Bhudevi (earth goddess):
I salute you, whose bosom is represented by a range of mountains and whose clothing is the cosmic ocean, and beg your forgiveness for stepping on you.
Immediately after, looking at open palms, this prayer is recited:
At the tip of my fingers resides Lakshmi
At the center of the palms is Saraswati
At the base of the palms is Govinda (Vishnu)
So we should look at the palms in the morning
During bathing, this prayer invokes the sacred rivers:
O Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Saraswati
Narmada, Sindhu and Kaveri,
May you manifest yourselves here and now.
To wish for a good day, Hindus say this prayer:
May Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva along with the planets
Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn,
Rahu and Ketu grant this day to be a good day for me.
Before undertaking an important task during the day or before any religious function, this prayer is offered to Ganapati — an elephant-headed god who is Hinduism's lord of obstacles:
O Lord of the curved tusk, immense being, blazing with the brilliance
of a million suns, please help remove all obstacles to this undertaking.
One of the most well-known prayers to Vishnu declares that a mere remembrance of the almighty is enough to absolve one of all the shackles of life. So mere remembrance it is, and off we go! Thus prayers can be very brief.
Festivals: 365 days of Thanksgiving!
Festivals for Hindus are like a 365-day Thanksgiving! Pick up a Hindu calendar and pick a day, any day — you're bound to find a reason for a celebration somewhere in the Hindu world. Some festivals are celebrated at home, and some are out in the community. Some may be low-key and serious, and some may be grand and lively. But most involve community gatherings in the open or at temples, and all involve prayers, special foods, excitement, and fun.
The festivals are seasonal. Tied in with a lunar calendar, they land on different days but in essentially the same month of the common calendar each year. In the month of January, Hindus celebrate Makara Sankranti, which is devoted to the sun god. In February is a night of Shiva called Shivaratri. Spring festivals include Rama Navami: celebrations over a nine-day period of Lord Rama's birth and life. Krishna Janmashtami is a worldwide celebration of the birthday of Lord Krishna in August. Ganesha Chaturthi honors Lord Ganapati in September. In the fall, Hindus worship goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga with festivals including grand processions, musical performances, and feasting. The well-known festival of lights (Diwali) celebrated all over India and the rest of the Hindu world in late fall is a celebration of the triumph of good over evil.
In addition, colorful festivals are conducted regionally that exploit regional legends and flora and fauna. I cover a wide variety of festivals in Chapter 16.
Worship in temples and shrines
Any excuse will do for Hindus to show up at a temple to have darshan, which is seeing
God. A new baby, a new job, a promotion, an approaching examination at school or college, or visiting family . . . you name it. Hindu families offer a plate of fruits and coconut and light incense sticks, and the priest goes through some rituals. Then the family prostrates in front of the deity, the priest blesses the family, and all is well.
In addition to the millions of such visits that take place every day, devout Hindus also observe the days and nights of special worship when the family must find its way to a nearby temple. The intent is the same (to see
God), the routine is the same, and the effect is the same: a feeling of satisfaction and gratitude. The experience is at once complex and simple. I sort out this experience for you in Chapter 15.
Rituals to mark the stages of life
Hindu scriptures have prescribed rituals and ceremonies to mark 16 defined stages of life. These 16 cradle-to-cremation rituals are known as samskaras. They begin with conception and continue with rituals performed before the baby is born. After the birth, the childhood rituals continue, marking the naming of the child, the first feeding, the first haircut, and the piercing of the ears. The childhood rituals are followed by ceremonies that initiate the young into adulthood, followed by householder-related rituals that include the wedding. The final stages of life bring rituals that prepare the individual for retirement, followed by the rituals to bury or cremate the dead. You can find information about all these ceremonies in Chapter 17.
Societal Structure
Hindu society of the distant past was organized on the basis of societal functions that included
Providing for the society's intellectual and spiritual interests
Protecting the land against domestic and foreign enemies
Conducting trade and commerce
Tilling the land and performing manual labor
Creating a systematic way to provide for all these needs and functions — at both the individual and community level — makes logical sense. The fact that this system went awry with the stigma of caste and hereditary ownership is an unfortunate matter of history that Hinduism is stuck with.
Following are the four major castes as they are understood and practiced. Note the word major
carefully. Many, many minor castes and subcastes exist:
Brahmin: Spiritual and intellectual services
Kshatriya: Defense-related services
Vaishya: Trade and commerce-related services
Shudra: Manual labor services
A lower caste, known as untouchables, also exists and includes people who undertake to do society's dirty work such as cleaning latrines, tanning leather, and so on. The existence of this lowest caste — the poverty, ill treatment, and prejudice against it — infuriated Mahatma Gandhi (the political and social leader who led the Indian independence movement and is considered the father of the nation) to the extent that he named the very lowest level Harijans, or God's people.
In general, the sharp divisions among castes no longer exist in practice in India and the rest of the Hindu world. Except that sometimes they do still exist, especially in respecting family traditions!
Is the caste system still alive? The proper answer is a resounding yes — and no! Today, the system exists from one extreme (where the idea and practice are condemned with obvious disgust) to the other (strict observation, within reason — that is, not violating state and federal laws) and a whole lot in between. Hindus of all castes now sit together side by side in classrooms, buses, restaurants, and workplaces, and they can live in the same neighborhoods thanks largely to modern education and the laws of the land.
The caste situation gets complex when simultaneous loyalties are observed. For example, a person who is single may, in some situations, openly proclaim freedom from the caste requirements and in other situations (such as mate selection and marriage) declare obvious preferences. Internet sites that advertise available grooms and brides stating their preferences run the whole gamut. Be patient, and you will see a full treatment of this subject in Chapter 5.
Chapter 2
From Past to Present: A Condensed History of Hinduism
In This Chapter
Getting familiar with events important to Hinduism's history
Discovering the origin of Hinduism (and the debate surrounding it)
Studying the spread of Hindu thought to Europe and America
Hindu. Not a household word, is it? At least not in the Western world. And Hinduism is much less so. But why? How did the history of an ancient people, who have lived, developed, and sustained the same civilized way of life in the same geographical location for millennia, slide out of view? Two or three thousand years ago, many visitors traveled from afar to study Hindus and their lifestyle. Some were scholars — notably Greek, Chinese, and Arab — who traveled the ancient land to write about Hindus in their own languages. Some were invaders who came with armies, occupied the land, stayed, and shared or imposed their own ideas about life. These historic developments took place long, long before Columbus set sail for India seeking silk, spices, and gold.
Christianity is named after Christ and Buddhism after the Buddha. What about Hinduism? Who is it named after? Who called them Hindus anyway?
First of all, what name can possibly describe an outlook so broad that it is all encompassing, all embracing, all inclusive, and respectful of every living creature and all of nature? Hindus think of their philosophies and practices as eternal and universal. The closest description of this lifestyle is contained in two Sanskrit words: Sanatana Dharma. Sanatana in Sanskrit means a concept that has neither a beginning nor an end. And the word dharma in Sanskrit is based on the root dhr, meaning that which holds a thing together leading to a set of spiritual laws or principles. Thus, Sanatana Dharma means eternal law.
And Sanatana Dharma is the name many modern Hindus prefer to substitute for Hinduism.
The word Hindu (and therefore the word Hinduism) did not originate with the ancient Indian communities flourishing on the banks of the river Indus in ancient northwest India. Those ancients did not identify themselves with a specific name. As it happened, the origin of the word Hindu is attributed to their neighbors, the Persians.
How far back do you have to go to find any trace of Hinduism? Are those traces likely to be in India itself, or could the origin have been outside India? The answers to these crucial questions are shrouded in doubt, debate, and controversy. Some scholars (generally of Indian origin) date the origin of Hinduism to be anywhere from 25,000 to 6000 BCE, while other scholars (generally Western ) typically put the date between 4500 and 1200 BCE. Further complicating matters is the lack of much hard evidence related to the origin of Hinduism. Because Hinduism reaches so far into the past, in a continuously populated land, too few physical records or artifacts exist to draw a clear picture of the religion's beginnings or the beliefs of the earliest Hindus.
But no matter the dates, no matter the controversies, Hinduism is, without doubt, the oldest continuing faith to retain so many elements of its original beliefs and practices to modern times. In this chapter, I discuss the beginning and the growth of the religion, from the Indus Valley to Indiana and beyond!
Getting the Lay of the Land
The land I am referring to here is the ancient India whose history is essentially the history of Hinduism. Before you jump into that early history of India, it may help to get a few basic facts about the area. Figure 2-1 is a map of India showing the areas and geographical features that I mention in this chapter.
Covering nearly a million and a half square miles, modern India is populated by about 1.2 billion people; Indians speak 18 major languages with about 1,600 dialects. The climate varies considerably with cool winters and hot to very hot summers, but the real weather story in India is the monsoon season when rain dominates. A wet, hot, and humid climate does not lend itself to preserving ancient artifacts. This fact has been one of the roadblocks in terms of finding and preserving archeological treasures that could help unravel mysteries of the ancient past.
And just where did the name India come from? The answer to that question connects to the origins of the word Hindu. Sanskrit was the ancient language of the Hindus, and the Sanskrit name for the Indus River is Sindhu. The Ancient Persian language (the closest linguistic relative to Sanskrit) tended to change the initial S to H when it transposed Sanskrit names. So Sindhu became Hindu; thus the people who lived across the Indus River from Persia were called Hindus. The Greeks (who fought their way into the country in the fourth century BCE) took the Persian word, dropped the initial H, and added their typical –ia
ending for the name of a country or abstract noun; hence: India. There you have it!
Figure 2-1: Regions of importance to the early history of Hinduism.
From the Ancient to the Not-So-Ancient Past in India
The history of Hinduism, as we know it, is based on the history of the Vedas, considered to be the most sacred of the scriptures of Hindus (see Chapters 1 and 10). Beginning as part of a strong (and still dynamic) oral tradition, the Vedas were composed over an unknown number of centuries and finally written down. The authors of the Vedas called themselves Aryans. The Sanskrit word Veda has its root in vid (to know
); the Vedas are the sacred knowledge of the ancient Aryans.
You likely define the word Aryan differently from how I use it in this chapter. In Sanskrit, the word Arya means noble,
and the whole of northern India where the Aryans lived was once called Aryavarta. The word Arya was also used in a religious context in addressing respected persons: acharya (meaning revered teacher
) is an example. In subsequent chapters, I refer to the Aryan people as Vedic or simply as Hindus.
In this section, I address a contemporary controversy in regard to the Aryans: Were they, or were they not, indigenous to the ancient land of India? I present the elements of an intense debate in regard to the beginnings of Hinduism between two groups of scholars:
On one side are scholars who date Hinduism from 1500 BCE, linking it with an event called the Aryan invasion. (See the upcoming section The Aryan invasion theory.
) According to this theory, the earliest known extant scripture (one that is still in existence), the Rig Veda, was imported into India by invaders.
On the other side are Indian and some contemporary Western scholars who believe that Hinduism and the Vedas originated on Indian soil, in the Indus Valley region. In other words, they believe that the authors of the Vedas were indigenous folks.
The Indus Valley civilization
In 1924, Sir John Marshall, director of the Archeological Survey of British India, announced that his assistants digging at Mohenjo-daro in the province of Sindh (now in Pakistan) had found evidence of a great ancient city. Mohenjo-daro was located on the banks of the Indus River. The diggings revealed a community of an estimated 30,000 people that enjoyed many modern amenities, including a municipal drainage system with sewers and houses with wells, baths, and indoor plumbing. Objects discovered in these houses included utensils and other household supplies, games (dice and chessmen), art (painted pottery and stone carvings), coins, fine jewelry (including gold and silver earrings, bracelets, and necklaces that would rival things you'd see in a Tiffany's display case), bronze and copper weapons, and a model of a two-wheeled cart. Later discoveries revealed a similar large city called Harappa further up the Indus with similar amenities.
These discoveries established (at least in Sir John Marshall's mind, at the time) that they represented, as did Egypt and Sumer in Iraq, one of the oldest of all civilizations, portraying an advanced civil society with an extraordinary infrastructure.
We know that these cities had disappeared by 1500 BCE; recent archeology and new technology (such as satellite imaging) confirm this fact. (Archeologists estimate that 2500 BCE was the peak of civilization at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.) But what happened to them? Was there a natural disaster that wiped them out, or did a group of nomads (the invading Aryans?) from outside the vast subcontinent arrive, fight the natives, and destroy them all in order to begin their own settlements? One
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